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§ 2. Political power; privileges. All political power is inherent in the people, and all free governments are founded on their authority, and are instituted for their equal protection and benefit. No special privileges or immunities shall ever be granted by the legislature, which may not be altered, revoked or repealed by the same body; and this power shall be exercised by no other tribunal or agency.

History: Adopted by convention, July 29, 1859; ratified by electors, October 4, 1859; L. 1861, p. 47.

Law Review and Bar Journal References:

1973 Kansas School District Equalization Act, James L. McNish, 22 K.L.R. 229, 235 (1974).

Automobile Guest Statutes—The Recent Cases, James M. Armstrong, 23 K.L.R. 93, 95 (1974).

Campaign Finance Acts—An Attempted Balance between Public Interests and Individual Freedoms, 24 K.L.R. 537, 540 (1976).

Campaign Finance Acts—An Attempted Balance Between Public Interests and Individual Freedoms, William H. Hensley, Donald Jarrett, 24 K.L.R. 345, 348 (1976).

Governmental immunity statutes and first Brown decision (Brown v. Wichita State University, 217 Kan. 279), Nancy Scherer, 15 W.L.J. 155, 157 (1976).

Governmental Immunity: Despotic Mantle or Creature of Necessity, Philip A. Harley and Bruce Wasinger, 16 W.L.J. 13, 22, 40 (1976).

Kansas governmental immunity statutes, 25 K.L.R. 140, 148 (1976).

Constitutional Law: Governmental Immunity Statute Violates Equal Protection as Applied to Kansas Turnpike Authority, Robert G. Martin, 19 W.L.J. 581, 584 (1980).

Deep Horizons—Legislative Shifting of the Burden of Proof in Implied Covenant Cases, John H. Lundgren, 24 W.L.J. 30 (1984).

The Collateral Source Rule—The American Medical Association and Tort Reform, Banks McDowell, 24 W.L.J. 205, 218 (1985).

Compelled Cost Disclosure of Grass Roots Lobbying Expenses: Necessary Government Voyeurism or Chilled Political Speech? Ron Smith, 6 Kan. J.L. & Pub. Pol'y, No. 1, 115 (1996).

The Kansas Sexually Violent Predator Act—Post Hendricks, Hon. Tom Malone, 67 J.K.B.A. No. 2, 36 (1998).

The Kansas Bill of Rights: 'Glittering Generalities' or Legal Authority, Kirk Redmond and David Miller, 69 J.K.B.A. No. 8, 18 (2000).

Home Field Advantage—Protecting Kansas Students Equally, Kyle J. Steadman, J.K.T.L.A. Vol. 24, No. 2, 4 (2000).

Attorney General's Opinions:

Amendments to constitution; proposals by Legislature; approval by voters. 85-174.

Licensure of vehicle dealers and manufacturers; brokers. 87-126.

Agricultural corporations; prohibition against certain corporations owning agricultural land; exemption. 88-47.

Kansas Lottery Act; copromotional agreements; illegal lotteries. 88-125.

Capital outlay levy; use of proceeds; procedure; constitutionality. 90-79.

KPERS; employment after retirement; compensation limit; exemptions; constitutionality. 91-13.

KPERS; election by elected officials to continue membership after service terminates; constitutionality. 91-14.

Election to continue participation in retirement system by certain judges; constitutionality; payments from KPERS fund; procedures; overpayments. 91-76.

Organization order for unified school district; affirmative action contracting program. 92-3.

Independent nominations; petitions; candidates for president and vice-president; substitution of vice-president candidate. 92-66.

Early retirement incentive programs; classification of school personnel; constitutionality. 92-82.

Crime victims compensation board; definitions; criminally injurious conduct; use of motor vehicle. 94-41.

KPERS; postretirement benefit increase after June 30, 1994; exemption of retired legislators. 95-2.

CASE ANNOTATIONS

1. Not violated by authorizing cities and counties to aid railroads. The State, ex rel., v. Nemaha County, 7 Kan. 542.

2. Cited, case holding woman eligible to office of county superintendent. Wright v. Noell, 16 Kan. 601.

3. Authority may be given cities to permit street railways therein. Atchison Street Rly. Co. v. Mo. Pac. Rly. Co., 31 Kan. 660, 663, 667, 3 P. 284.

4. Does not permit city to break contract with water company. Water-Works Co. v. City of Columbus, 48 Kan. 99, 101, 113, 28 P. 1097.

5. City may not grant a monopoly for ordinary business therein. In re Lowe, Petitioner, 54 Kan. 757, 763, 39 P. 710. Overruled: O'Neal v. Harrison, 96 Kan. 339, 150 P. 551, post.

6. "Occupying-claimant act" does not violate this section. Deitzler v. Wilhite, 55 Kan. 200, 203, 40 P. 272.

7. Legislature may alter corporate charter. (Cited in dissenting opinion.) The State v. Haun, 61 Kan. 146, 165, 59 P. 340.

8. Veterans' preference law does not violate this section. Goodrich v. Mitchell, 68 Kan. 765, 769, 75 P. 1034.

9. Act requiring druggist's permit to sell intoxicating liquor, held valid. The State v. Durein, 70 Kan. 13, 17, 80 P. 987. Affirmed: Fritz Durein v. Kansas, 208 U.S. 613, 28 S. Ct. 567, 52 L.Ed. 645.

10. Inheritance tax law of 1909 does not violate this section. The State, ex rel., v. Cline, 91 Kan. 416, 417, 425, 137 P. 932.

11. State cannot relinquish title to islands to individuals without compensation. Winters v. Meyers, 92 Kan. 414, 421, 140 P. 1033.

12. Initiative and referendum for cities of first class, held valid. The State, ex rel., v. City of Hutchinson, 93 Kan. 405, 412, 144 P. 241.

13. Not violated by act requiring bathhouses at coal mines. The State v. Reaser, 93 Kan. 628, 629, 145 P. 838.

14. City may grant exclusive right for removal of garbage. O'Neal v. Harrison, 96 Kan. 339, 340, 150 P. 551.

15. Legislative acts unassailable when within limits of constitution. Hicks v. Davis, 97 Kan. 312, 314, 154 P. 1030.

16. Grant of power never interpreted as privilege to injure public. Drainage District v. Railway Co., 99 Kan. 188, 212, 161 P. 937.

17. City-manager plan of city government; act constitutional. The State, ex rel., v. City of Wichita, 100 Kan. 399, 401, 164 P. 290.

18. Contract to keep pavement in repair; expense; statute valid. Rohr v. City of Leavenworth, 101 Kan. 222, 165 P. 823.

19. Trading stamps; prohibitory license tax; act constitutional. The State v. Wilson, 101 Kan. 789, 795, 796, 168 P. 679.

20. Farm crossing over railroad right-of-way; act unconstitutional. Chamberlain v. Railway Co., 107 Kan. 341, 344, 191 P. 261.

21. Soldiers' bonus act does not violate this section. The State, ex rel., v. Davis, 113 Kan. 4, 11, 213 P. 171.

22. Power of utilities commission to abrogate contracts of public utility. Railroad and Light Co. v. Court of Industrial Relations, 113 Kan. 217, 229, 214 P. 797.

23. Section cited in determining power of governor to pardon and commute sentences. Jamison v. Flanner, 116 Kan. 624, 634, 228 P. 82.

24. Act providing for Kansas Wheat Growers Association does not contravene section. Wheat Growers Ass'n v. Charlet, 118 Kan. 765, 236 P. 657.

25. Penalty for failure to produce evidence held constitutional. Edmonds v. Federal Securities Co., 131 Kan. 11, 16, 290 P. 3.

26. Act authorizing bank commissioner to withdraw approval of securities without notice or hearing, and no standard to guide his official action is unconstitutional. Cities Service Co. v. Koeneke, 137 Kan. 7, 18, 20 P.2d 460.

27. State act for federal loan for state highways is constitutional. State, ex rel., v. State Highway Comm., 139 Kan. 391, 395, 32 P.2d 493.

28. K.S.A. 7-102, relating to admittance of attorneys to bar, held valid. Depew v. Wichita Association of Credit Men, 142 Kan. 403, 406, 49 P.2d 1041.

29. Section construed in holding absentee-voters' acts constitutional. Lemons v. Noller, 144 Kan. 813, 816, 827, 63 P.2d 177.

30. Section relates to political privileges, not property rights; act regulating sale of 3.2 beer valid. Johnson v. Reno County Comm'rs, 147 Kan. 211, 213, 224, 75 P.2d 849.

31. City ordinance licensing only operators of four or more vending machines invalid; arbitrary classification. Matheny v. City of Hutchinson, 154 Kan. 682, 683, 121 P.2d 227.

32. People exercise governmental powers through Legislatures. Manning v. Davis, 166 Kan. 278, 281, 201 P.2d 113.

33. Discussed; taxes properly levied on property in duly annexed city addition. Smith v. City of Prairie Village, 175 Kan. 469, 470, 264 P.2d 1053.

34. Act authorizing combined waterworks and sewage disposal systems held valid. City of Lawrence v. Robb, 175 Kan. 495, 498, 504, 265 P.2d 317.

35. Cited; state board authorized to consent to placing building on state land; title. State, ex rel., v. Ancient Order of United Workmen, 178 Kan. 69, 72, 283 P.2d 69.

36. Not violated by urban renewal law; section refers to political not property rights. State, ex rel., v. Urban Renewal Agency of Kansas City, 179 Kan. 435, 439, 296 P.2d 656.

37. Procedure for publication service in tax foreclosure action considered. Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Moore, 179 Kan. 482, 490, 297 P.2d 183. Overruling four cases on subject of when action to vacate tax foreclosure may be commenced, to-wit: Magnolia Petroleum Co. v. Moyle, 162 Kan. 133, 175 P.2d 133; Magnolia Petroleum Co. v. Moyle, 163 Kan. 368, 182 P.2d 127; Shell Oil Co. v. Board of County Comm'rs, 165 Kan. 642, 197 P.2d 925, and Board of County Comm'rs, v. Allen, 175 Kan. 460, 264 P.2d 916. However, Phillips case overruled in Pierce v. Board of County Comm'rs, 200 Kan. 74, 84, 434 P.2d 858.

38. Cited in concurring opinion discussing separation of powers. State, ex rel., v. Fadely, 180 Kan. 652, 699, 308 P.2d 537.

39. Act pertaining to water supply and distribution districts (Chapter 19, Article 35) valid. Water District No. 1 v. Robb, 182 Kan. 2, 17, 318 P.2d 387.

40. Mentioned; fair trade act held unconstitutional in part. Quality Oil Co. v. du Pont & Co., 182 Kan. 488, 491, 322 P.2d 731.

41. K.S.A. 7-104 and supreme court rules relating to practice of law valid. Taylor v. Taylor, 185 Kan. 324, 328, 342 P.2d 190. Dismissed: 361 U.S. 374, 80 S. Ct. 401, 4 L.Ed.2d 380.

42. Corporation commission's order requiring ratable taking of gas by all purchasing companies issued under K.S.A. 55-703 upheld. Northern Natural Gas Co. v. State Corporation Commission, 188 Kan. 351, 354, 362 P.2d 609. Northern Natural Gas Co. v. State Corporation Commission, 188 Kan. 355, 360, 362 P.2d 599. Rehearing denied: 188 Kan. 624, 364 P.2d 668.

43. Act authorizing city to extend its credit for promotion of private industry (K.S.A. 12-1740 through 12-1749) does not violate section. State, ex rel., v. City of Pittsburg, 188 Kan. 612, 621, 364 P.2d 71.

44. Provisions of K.S.A. 79-2804b, limiting time for challenging a tax foreclosure judgment, do not violate this section. Robertson v. Lemmon, 189 Kan. 619, 622, 624, 626, 371 P.2d 175. Dismissed: 375 U.S. 5, 84 S. Ct. 40, 11 L.Ed.2d 37.

45. Every qualified elector of the several counties is possessed with equal power in making laws. Harris v. Shanahan, 192 Kan. 183, 187, 204, 387 P.2d 771.

46. Discussed; "Sunday Closing Law" of 1963 held invalid and unconstitutional. Boyer v. Ferguson, 192 Kan. 607, 611, 389 P.2d 775.

47. Concept of equal protection could not be satisfied if one group of people has a voice in selecting two representatives. Harris v. Shanahan, 192 Kan. 629, 634, 635, 390 P.2d 772.

48. Mentioned; where no express provision for notice is made in statute, reasonable notice will be implied. Cities Service Gas Co. v. State Corporation Commission, 192 Kan. 707, 713, 391 P.2d 74.

49. Right of electors to vote in state elections discussed (dissenting opinion). Harris v. Anderson, 194 Kan. 302, 316, 345, 346, 400 P.2d 25. Certiorari denied: 382 U.S. 894, 86 S. Ct. 185, 15 L.Ed.2d 150.

50. The private club act (K.S.A. 41-2601 et seq.), not in conflict herewith. Tri-State Hotel Co. v. Londerholm, 195 Kan. 748, 751, 759, 760, 763, 408 P.2d 877.

51. Contention of purposeful exclusions from jury panel not sustained. Woods v. Munns, 347 F.2d 948, 950.

52. Safety responsibility act (K.S.A. 8-722 et seq.), does not deny equal protection of law. State v. Finley, 198 Kan. 585, 586, 601, 426 P.2d 251. Judgment vacated: State v. Finley, 199 Kan. 615, 433 P.2d 414.

53. Under facts in case, constructive service in tax lien foreclosure proceedings held to violate this section. Pierce v. Board of County Commissioners, 200 Kan. 74, 80, 85, 86, 434 P.2d 858.

54. Section does not refer to preliminary examinations; no denial of due process. State v. Trotter, 203 Kan. 31, 34, 453 P.2d 93.

55. Where names and addresses of adverse parties are known or easily ascertainable, notice of pending proceedings by publication service alone insufficient to satisfy due process requirements. Chapin v. Aylward, 204 Kan. 448, 455, 464 P.2d 177.

56. K.S.A. 79-3290 relating to basis of ascertaining net income held constitutional. Missouri Pacific Railroad Co. v. McDonald, 207 Kan. 744, 751, 486 P.2d 1347. Affirmed: 208 Kan. 479, 493 P.2d 280.

57. Cited; due process requires notice of proceedings by means reasonably calculated to inform parties affected. In re Estate of Barnes, 212 Kan. 502, 520, 512 P.2d 387.

58. Cited; guest statute (K.S.A. 8-122b) held unconstitutional; violates equal protection guarantees of United States and State Constitution. Henry v. Bauder, 213 Kan. 751, 752, 754, 518 P.2d 362.

59. Referred to; erroneous judgment rendered under guest statute prior to date act held unconstitutional; trial ordered under present law. Vaughn v. Murray, 214 Kan. 456, 458, 521 P.2d 262.

60. Governmental immunity doctrine as declared in K.S.A. 46-901, 46-902 unconstitutional and void. Brown v. Wichita State University, 217 Kan. 279, 280, 281, 295, 297, 540 P.2d 66. Reversed and remanded: 219 Kan. 2, 3, 25, 26, 28, 36, 40, 547 P.2d 1015.

61. Service by publication in tax foreclosure proceeding satisfied constitutional requirements; property description sufficient. Board of County Commissioners v. Alldritt, 217 Kan. 331, 536 P.2d 1377.

62. Under facts, action against city on common law theories dismissed; governmental immunity. Bribiesca v. City of Wichita, 221 Kan. 571, 572, 561 P.2d 816.

63. Traditional classifications applied to attractive nuisance actions do not deny equal protection. Gerchberg v. Loney, 223 Kan. 446, 452, 576 P.2d 593.

64. Health care provider insurance availability act provisions do not violate equal protection of laws. State, ex rel., Schneider v. Liggett, 223 Kan. 610, 611, 613, 616, 618, 620, 576 P.2d 221.

65. County resolution establishing solid waste management system with different rates for farm and city property held constitutional. Zerr v. Tilton, 224 Kan. 394, 395, 581 P.2d 364.

66. Equal protection of law not violated by K.S.A. 61-1805. Threadgill v. Beard, 225 Kan. 296, 301, 590 P.2d 1021.

67. City ordinance prohibiting anyone from carrying firearms within city limits held unconstitutionally broad; judgment affirmed. City of Junction City v. Mevis, 226 Kan. 526, 527, 601 P.2d 1145.

68. 1979 amendments to Kansas liquor control act not violative hereof. Colby Distributing Co. v. Lennen, 227 Kan. 179, 191, 606 P.2d 102.

69. L. 1980, ch. 236, amending and repealing K.S.A. 74-2426, gives county taxing officials right of appeal from adverse ruling; retroactive application and other provisions of statutes constitutional. Board of Greenwood County Comm'rs v. Nadel, 228 Kan. 469, 480, 618 P.2d 778.

70. Shorter statute of limitations for tort actions against health care providers not violation of section. Stephens v. Snyder Clinic Ass'n, 230 Kan. 115, 120, 124, 127, 128, 631 P.2d 222 (1981).

71. Uniform and equal rate of taxation compared to equal protection clause or due process in construing port authorities act. State ex rel. Tomasic v. Kansas City, Kansas Port Authority, 230 Kan. 404, 424, 425, 426, 427, 636 P.2d 760 (1981).

72. Appellate court may consider issues not raised at trial or on appeal where necessary to serve interests of justice or prevent denial of fundamental rights. State v. Puckett, 230 Kan. 596, 598, 634 P.2d 144 (1981).

73. Governmental immunity statute, K.S.A. 46-901, not unconstitutional when applied to action for wrongful death. Hendrix v. City of Topeka, 231 Kan. 113, 115, 643 P.2d 129 (1982).

74. Publication service alone insufficient notice to satisfy requirements hereof where names and addresses of adverse parties known. Federal Nat'l Mtg. Ass'n v. Beard, 8 Kan. App. 2d 371, 659 P.2d 232 (1983).

75. Cited in case upholding the constitutionality of K.S.A. 44-706. Leiker v. Employment Security Bd. of Review, 8 Kan. App. 2d 379, 381, 382, 659 P.2d 236 (1983).

76. Act transferring county hospital assets to private enterprise (K.S.A. 19-18,133, 19-18,134) is for public purpose and not a prohibited special privilege. Ullrich v. Board of Thomas County Comm'rs, 234 Kan. 782, 788, 790, 676 P.2d 127 (1984).

77. Where names and addresses of adverse parties are known or easily ascertainable, notice of pending proceedings by publication service alone held not sufficient; retrospective application of appellate court decision considered. Giles v. Adobe Royalty, Inc., 235 Kan. 758, 675 P.2d 900 (1984).

78. Denying good time credits for class A felony incarceration (K.S.A. 22-3717(b)) rationally related to valid legislative purpose. Olson v. Maschner, 10 Kan. App. 2d 289, 697 P.2d 893 (1985).

79. Statute (K.S.A. 2-2457) requiring notice to county attorney before suing for pesticide application damages unconstitutional. Barr v. Terminix Int'l, Inc., 237 Kan. 82, 84, 697 P.2d 1276 (1985).

80. Statute (K.S.A. 2-2457) requiring notice to county attorney before suing for pesticide application damages unconstitutional. Ernest v. Faler, 237 Kan. 125, 127, 134, 697 P.2d 870 (1985).

81. Exemption (K.S.A. 8-1911) from vehicle weight limitations (K.S.A. 8-1908) not a violation of equal protection clauses. State v. Moore, 237 Kan. 523, 525, 534, 701 P.2d 684 (1985).

82. Criteria for tax exemptions reviewed; industrial revenue bond 10-year exemption (K.S.A. 79-201a Second) constitutional. State ex rel. Tomasic v. City of Kansas City, 237 Kan. 572, 582, 584, 701 P.2d 1314 (1985).

83. Fact that automobile passenger generally owes no duty to others not a violation of equal protection. Akins v. Hamblin, 237 Kan. 742, 749, 750, 703 P.2d 771 (1985).

84. Collateral source statute (K.S.A. 60-3403) rationally related to legitimate state purpose and is constitutional. Ferguson v. Garmon, 643 F. Supp. 335, 336, 342 (1986).

85. Unanimity requirement of county board for incorporation of city under K.S.A. 15-123 violates neither equal protection nor substantive due process concepts. In re Application for Incorporation as City, 241 Kan. 396, 397, 399, 400, 401, 736 P.2d 875 (1987).

86. Cited; statute (K.S.A. 60-3403) abrogating collateral source rule in medical malpractice liability actions violates Kansas equal protection clause. Farley v. Engelken, 241 Kan. 663, 665, 678, 740 P.2d 1058 (1987).

87. Cited by dissent where majority denied tort action for retaliatory discharge to worker protected by collective bargaining agreement. Armstrong v. Goldblatt Tool Co., 242 Kan. 164, 177, 747 P.2d 119 (1987).

88. Constitutionality of loans of public moneys to private individuals for public purposes and to promote general welfare upheld. Duckworth v. City of Kansas City, 243 Kan. 386, 758 P.2d 201 (1988).

89. Nonpecuniary damage limitations in K.S.A. 60-1903 do not violate any constitutional rights. Leiker v. Gafford, 245 Kan. 325, 359, 365, 778 P.2d 823 (1989).

90. Legislative limitation on recovery of noneconomic damages (K.S.A. 60-19a01, 60-19a02) as not violating any constitutional rights determined. Samsel v. Wheeler Transport Services, Inc., 246 Kan. 336, 353, 789 P.2d 541 (1990).

91. Actual notice to lienholder is minimum constitutional requirement in proceeding adversely affecting property interest; constitutional statute (K.S.A. 79-2111) applied unconstitutionally. Joe Self Chevrolet, Inc. v. Board of Sedgwick County Comm'rs, 247 Kan. 625, 626, 631, 638, 802 P.2d 1231 (1990).

92. Section applies solely to political privileges not individual personal or property rights; K.S.A. 40-3403(h) of health care provider insurance availability act constitutional. Sharples v. Roberts, 249 Kan. 286, 289, 290, 816 P.2d 390 (1991).

93. County park regulations excluding horseback riding on park roadways as valid exercise of police power. State v. Risjord, 249 Kan. 497, 499, 505, 819 P.2d 638 (1991).

94. Hospital lacked standing to challenge constitutionality of statute requiring nonprofit insurer to cut health costs. St. Francis Reg. Med. Ctr. v. Blue Cross, 810 F. Supp. 1209, 1210 (1992).

95. Exclusion of certain lump-sum settlements under K.S.A. 44-528 from review and modification does not violate provision. Peterson v. Garvey Elevators, Inc., 252 Kan. 976, 980, 850 P.2d 893 (1993).

96. Whether habitual offender ordinance requiring increasing fines is constitutional for repeat indigent criminal offenders examined. Wichita v. Lucero, 255 Kan. 437, 439, 443, 445, 874 P.2d 1144 (1994).

97. Whether the school district finance and quality performance act (L. 1992, ch. 280) recapture provisions are an unconstitutional taking examined. U.S.D. No. 229 v. State, 256 Kan. 232, 235, 270, 885 P.2d 1170 (1994).

98. Party waived improper hearing notice issue by failing to include what it would have presented at KCC reconsideration hearing. Citizens' Utility Ratepayer Bd. v. Kansas Corporation Comm'n, 264 Kan. 363, 386, 956 P.2d 685 (1998).

99. Statutory provisions (K.S.A. 12-1770 et seq.) limiting race track development to Wyandotte county and providing preferential bonding terms and condemnation compensation not violative of equal protection. State ex rel. Tomasic v. Unified Gov't of Wyandotte County/Kansas City, 265 Kan. 779, 788, 790, 793, 799, 962 P.2d 543 (1998).

100. Municipal rental regulatory ordinance did not violate property owner's procedural or substantive due process rights. Brooks v. Sauceda, 85 F. Supp. 2d 1115, 1124 (2000).

101. Denial of credit towards postrelease supervision period for time served beyond sentence no equal protection violation. State v. Gaudina, 284 Kan. 354, 371, 160 P.3d 854 (2007).

102. Applying veteran's preference to promotions does not create due process or equal protection violation. State ex rel. Slusher v. City of Leavenworth, 285 Kan. 438, 451, 452, 172 P.3d 1154 (2007).

103. For a claim of minority vote dilution, a plaintiff must show that: (1) The minority group is sufficiently large and geographically compact to constitute a majority in a single member district; (2) the group is politically cohesive; and (3) there exists sufficient bloc voting by the white majority in the new allegedly diluted districts to usually defeat the preferred candidate of the politically cohesive minority bloc. Rivera v. Schwab, 315 Kan. 877, 911, 512 P.3d 168 (2022), cert. denied sub nom. Alonzo v. Schwab, 143 S. Ct. 1055 (March 27, 2023).